학습에 소모된 연산량(FLOP) 기준 정렬.
Grok 4 leads with 5 x 10^26 FLOP, ahead of GPT-4.5 (3.8 x 10^26 FLOP) and Grok 3 (3.5 x 10^26 FLOP).
The gap between first and tenth place is a factor of 14.9 — compute at the frontier is spread across orders of magnitude, not percentage points.
Training compute is the single best available proxy for how much was invested in a model, and it is almost never published. These are reconstructed estimates: from hardware counts multiplied by training time and utilization, or from scaling relationships against known runs.
| # | Name | Organization | Published | Training compute |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 01 | Grok 4 | xAI | Jul 9, 2025 | 5×10²⁶ FLOP |
| 02 | GPT-4.5 | OpenAI | Feb 27, 2025 | 3.8×10²⁶ FLOP |
| 03 | Grok 3 | xAI | Feb 17, 2025 | 3.5×10²⁶ FLOP |
| 04 | GPT-5 | OpenAI | Aug 7, 2025 | 6.6×10²⁵ FLOP |
| 05 | Llama 4 Behemoth (preview) | Meta AI | Apr 5, 2025 | 5.2×10²⁵ FLOP |
| 06 | Gemini 1.0 Ultra | Google DeepMind | Dec 6, 2023 | 5×10²⁵ FLOP |
| 07 | Llama Nemotron Ultra 253B | NVIDIA | Mar 18, 2025 | 3.9×10²⁵ FLOP |
| 08 | Composer 2.5 | Cursor | May 18, 2026 | 3.9×10²⁵ FLOP |
| 09 | Llama 3.1-405B | Meta AI | Jul 23, 2024 | 3.8×10²⁵ FLOP |
| 10 | Claude 3.7 Sonnet | Anthropic | Feb 24, 2025 | 3.4×10²⁵ FLOP |
| 11 | Grok-2 | xAI | Aug 13, 2024 | 3×10²⁵ FLOP |
| 12 | Claude 3.5 Sonnet | Anthropic | Jun 20, 2024 | 2.7×10²⁵ FLOP |
| 13 | Doubao-pro | ByteDance | Oct 28, 2024 | 2.5×10²⁵ FLOP |
| 14 | Composer 2 | Cursor | Mar 19, 2026 | 2.3×10²⁵ FLOP |
| 15 | GPT-4 (Jun 2023) | OpenAI | Jun 13, 2023 | 2.1×10²⁵ FLOP |
| 16 | GPT-4 (Mar 2023) | OpenAI | Mar 15, 2023 | 2.1×10²⁵ FLOP |
| 17 | Kimi K3 | Moonshot | Jul 16, 2026 | 2×10²⁵ FLOP |
| 18 | Nemotron-4 340B | NVIDIA | Jun 14, 2024 | 1.8×10²⁵ FLOP |
| 19 | Qwen3-Max | Alibaba | Sep 5, 2025 | 1.5×10²⁵ FLOP |
| 20 | Pangu Ultra | Huawei | Apr 10, 2025 | 1.1×10²⁵ FLOP |
| 21 | Aramco Metabrain AI | Saudi Aramco | Mar 4, 2024 | 10²⁵ FLOP |
| 22 | Inflection-2 | Inflection AI | Nov 22, 2023 | 10²⁵ FLOP |
| 23 | Emu3.5 | Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence / BAAI | Oct 30, 2025 | 9.9×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 24 | DeepSeek-V4-Pro | DeepSeek | Apr 24, 2026 | 9.7×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 25 | Qwen2.5-VL-72B | Alibaba | Feb 19, 2025 | 9.6×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 26 | Grok-1.5 | xAI | Mar 28, 2024 | 9.3×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 27 | Reka Core | Reka AI | Apr 15, 2024 | 8.4×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 28 | SEA-LION V3 Llama3.1 70B | AI Singapore | Dec 19, 2024 | 8×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 29 | Inflection-2.5 | Inflection AI | Mar 7, 2024 | 8×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 30 | Llama 3.1-70B | Meta AI | Jul 23, 2024 | 7.9×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 31 | Llama-3.1-Nemotron-70B-Instruct | NVIDIA, Meta AI | Jun 12, 2024 | 7.9×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 32 | Llama 3-70B | Meta AI | Apr 18, 2024 | 7.9×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 33 | Qwen2.5 Instruct (72B) | Alibaba | Sep 19, 2024 | 7.9×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 34 | Qwen2.5-72B | Alibaba | Sep 19, 2024 | 7.8×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 35 | PaLM 2 | May 10, 2023 | 7.3×10²⁴ FLOP | |
| 36 | AMIE (Articulate Medical Intelligence Explorer) | Google DeepMind, Google Research | Apr 9, 2025 | 7.3×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 37 | Qwen3-32B | Alibaba | Apr 29, 2025 | 7.1×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 38 | MAI-Thinking-1 | Microsoft | Jun 2, 2026 | 7×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 39 | Telechat2-115B | China Telecom | Sep 20, 2024 | 6.9×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 40 | Llama 3.3 70B | Meta AI | Dec 6, 2024 | 6.9×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 41 | GLM-5 | Z.ai (Zhipu AI) | Feb 17, 2026 | 6.8×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 42 | MiMo-V2.5-Pro | Xiaomi Corp | Apr 23, 2026 | 6.8×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 43 | Apertus 70B | ETH Zurich, Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne (EPFL), Swiss National Supercomputing Centre (CSCS), Swisscom | Sep 2, 2025 | 6.7×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 44 | Nemotron-H 56B | NVIDIA | Apr 14, 2025 | 6.7×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 45 | Nemotron 3 Ultra | NVIDIA | Jun 4, 2026 | 6.6×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 46 | Amazon Nova Pro | Amazon | Dec 3, 2024 | 6×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 47 | Ling-1T | Ant Group | Oct 10, 2025 | 6×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 48 | Kimi K2.5 | Moonshot | Feb 2, 2026 | 5.8×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 49 | Hunyuan-TurboS | Tencent | Mar 11, 2025 | 5.4×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 50 | gpt-oss-120b | OpenAI | Aug 5, 2025 | 4.9×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 51 | Amazon Titan | Amazon | Sep 28, 2023 | 4.8×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 52 | Qwen3-235B-A22B-Thinking (Jul 2025) | Alibaba | Jul 25, 2025 | 4.8×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 53 | Qwen3-235B-A22B (Jul 2025) | Alibaba | Jul 25, 2025 | 4.8×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 54 | Qwen3-235B-A22B | Alibaba | Apr 29, 2025 | 4.8×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 55 | GLM-4.7 | Z.ai (Zhipu AI) | Dec 22, 2025 | 4.4×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 56 | GLM-4.6 | Z.ai (Zhipu AI), Tsinghua University | Sep 30, 2025 | 4.4×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 57 | GLM-4.5 | Z.ai (Zhipu AI), Tsinghua University | Aug 5, 2025 | 4.4×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 58 | MiniMax-M1-80k | MiniMax | Jun 13, 2025 | 4.3×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 59 | MiMo-V2.5 | Xiaomi Corp | Apr 23, 2026 | 4.3×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 60 | AFM-server | Apple | Jul 29, 2024 | 4.3×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 61 | Kimi K2 Thinking | Moonshot | Nov 6, 2025 | 4.2×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 62 | DeepSeek-V3.2 | DeepSeek | Dec 1, 2025 | 4.2×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 63 | MiniMax-M1-40k | MiniMax | Jun 13, 2025 | 4.2×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 64 | DeepSeek-V3.2-Exp | DeepSeek | Sep 29, 2025 | 4.2×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 65 | Step-Video-T2V | StepFun | Feb 24, 2025 | 4.1×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 66 | Llama 4 Scout | Meta AI | Apr 5, 2025 | 4.1×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 67 | DeepSeek-R1 (May 2025) | DeepSeek | May 28, 2025 | 4×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 68 | MegaScale (Production) | ByteDance, Peking University | Feb 23, 2024 | 3.9×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 69 | SenseChat | SenseTime | Apr 10, 2023 | 3.9×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 70 | Claude 2 | Anthropic | Jul 11, 2023 | 3.9×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 71 | EXAONE 4.5 | LG AI Research | Apr 9, 2026 | 3.9×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 72 | Falcon-180B | Technology Innovation Institute | Sep 6, 2023 | 3.8×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 73 | LongCat-Flash | Meituan Inc | Sep 1, 2025 | 3.7×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 74 | Falcon-H1 | Technology Innovation Institute | May 21, 2025 | 3.7×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 75 | Cosmos-Transfer1-7B | NVIDIA | Mar 18, 2025 | 3.6×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 76 | DeepSeek-V3.1-Terminus | DeepSeek | Sep 22, 2025 | 3.6×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 77 | DeepSeek-V3.1 | DeepSeek | Aug 21, 2025 | 3.6×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 78 | QwQ-32B | Alibaba | Mar 6, 2025 | 3.5×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 79 | Qwen2.5-32B | Alibaba | Sep 17, 2024 | 3.5×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 80 | DeepSeek-R1 | DeepSeek | Jan 20, 2025 | 3.5×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 81 | Hunyuan-Large | Tencent | Nov 6, 2024 | 3.5×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 82 | DeepSeek-V3 | DeepSeek | Dec 24, 2024 | 3.3×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 83 | DeepSeek-V3 (Mar 2025) | DeepSeek | Mar 24, 2025 | 3.3×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 84 | Qwen3-14B | Alibaba | Apr 29, 2025 | 3.2×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 85 | MiniMax-Text-01 | MiniMax | Jan 14, 2025 | 3.1×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 86 | Pangu Ultra MoE | Huawei | May 7, 2025 | 3.1×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 87 | NVLM-X 72B | NVIDIA | Oct 22, 2024 | 3×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 88 | LLaVA-OV-72B | ByteDance, Nanyang Technological University, Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK), Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) | Aug 6, 2024 | 3×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 89 | NVLM-D 72B | NVIDIA | Oct 22, 2024 | 3×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 90 | Qwen2-72B | Alibaba | Jun 7, 2024 | 3×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 91 | NVLM-H 72B | NVIDIA | Oct 22, 2024 | 3×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 92 | Kimi K2 | Moonshot | Jul 11, 2025 | 3×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 93 | Grok-1 | xAI | Nov 4, 2023 | 2.9×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 94 | GLM-Z1-Rumination-32B-0414 | Tsinghua University | Apr 14, 2025 | 2.9×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 95 | GLM-4-32B-0414 | Z.ai (Zhipu AI), Tsinghua University | Apr 14, 2025 | 2.9×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 96 | ERNIE-4.5-300B-A47B | Baidu | Jun 29, 2025 | 2.8×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 97 | Cosmos-1.0- Diffusion-14B Video2World | NVIDIA | Jan 7, 2025 | 2.8×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 98 | Cosmos-Predict1-14b-Video2World | NVIDIA | Jan 7, 2025 | 2.8×10²⁴ FLOP |
| 99 | Minerva (540B) | Jun 29, 2022 | 2.7×10²⁴ FLOP | |
| 100 | EXAONE 4.0 (32B) | LG AI Research | Jul 15, 2025 | 2.7×10²⁴ FLOP |
